• 2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu and Pondicherry are also on the coast.
• The Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are made up of islands only.
The Plains of India
------------------------------------
• To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Peninsula lies the great plains of North India. They are
formed by the depositional works of three major river systems, Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The vast plains of
north India are alluvial in nature and the westernmost portion is occupied by the Thar Desert.
• The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga plains and minimum in the Western Plains.
• In the Kerala plains are the backwaters or ‘Kayak’, which are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying
parallel to the coastline. The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake.
• The plains consist of four divisions:
------------------------------------
• Bhabar : Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous
• Tarai : Re-emergence of streams. Zone of excessive dampness
• Bhangar : Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with calcareous formations called ‘kankar’
• Khadar : New alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.
Peninsular Plateau of India
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a triangle
with its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats constitute its eastern and western
boundaries, respectively.
• Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: The Malwa Plateau in the north & the
Deccan Plateau in the south.
• Most of the rocks are of the igneous type.
• Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.
• Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, the largest and most typical part of which is the Ranchi
plateau.
• The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is made up of lava flows in the Cretaceous-Eocene era
through the fissure eruptions.
Islands of India
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• Total coastline of India : 7516 km. Longest coastline: Gujarat (Second longest is of Andhra Pradesh).
• Indian territorial limits include 248 islands:
The Andaman and Nicobar Group
------------------------------------
• Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest is Middle Andaman.
• The Andamans are believed to be extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of the country.
• Saddle Peak (737 m) in N.Andaman is the highest peak.
• The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the largest is Great Nicobar. Most of them are volcanic in nature.
• Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only 147 km away from Sumatra island of Indonesia.
• Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands. Barren is in the process of eruption these days after lying
dormant for 200 years.
The Arabian Sea Group
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• All the islands in the Arabian Sea (Total 25) are coral islands and are surrounded by Fringing Reefs (North :
Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy).
Note :
• Ten Degree Channel separates Andamans from Nicobars (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar)
• Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman.
• Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island.
• Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island (India) from Maldives.
Rivers of India
------------------------------------
In India, the rivers can be divided into two main groups:
1. Himalayan Rivers
2. Peninsular Rivers
Himalayan Rivers of India
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In this three major river systems are there:
The Indus System
• It has a total length of 2880 km (709 km in India). Rises in Tibet (China) near Mansarovar Lake.
• In Jammu and Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries are: Zanskar, Dras, Gartang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit, etc.
• Its most important tributaries, which join Indus at various places, are: Jhelum (725 km), Chenab (1800 km), Ravi
(720 km), Beas (470 km) & Sutlej (1050 km).
• Sources: Jhelum from Verinag (SE Kashmir), Chenab from Bara Lacha Pass (Lahaul-Spiti, H.R), Ravi from Kullu
Hills near Rohtang Pass in H. R, Beas from a place near Rohtang Pass in H.E and Satluj from Mansarovar –
Rakas lakes in W. Tibet.
• In Nari Khorsan province of Tibet, Satluj has created an extraordinary canyon, comparable to the Grand Canyon
of Colorado (US).
• According to the Indus Water Treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, India can utilize only 20% of the
total discharge of Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.
The Ganga System
---------------------------------
• It is 2525 km long of which 1450 km is in Uttarakhand and UP, 445 km in Bihar and 520 km in West Bengal.
• The Ganga, the head stream is constituted of two main rivers – Bhagirthi and Alaknanda, which combine at
Devprayag to form Ganga.
• Before Alaknanda meets Bhagirthi at Devprayag, Mandakini meets Alaknanda at Rudraprayag.
• Sources: Bhagirthi from Gaumukh, Alaknanda from Badrinath, Mandakini from Kedarnath (all from Uttarakhand).
• Yamuna (1375 km) is its most important tributary (on right bank). It rises at the Yamunotri glacier in Uttarakhand.
It runs parallel to Ganga for 800km and joins it at Allahabad. Important tributaries of Yamuna are Chambal (1050
km), Sind, Betwa (480 km) and Ken (all from south).
• Apart from Yamuna, other tributaries of Ganga are Ghaghra (1080 km), Son (780 km), Gandak (425 km), Kosi
(730 km), Gomti (805 km), Damodar (541 km). Kosi is infamous as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’, while Damodar gets the
name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ as these cause floods in these regions.
• Hooghli is a distributory of Ganga flowing through Kolkata.
The Brahmaputra system
-----------------------------------
• It has a total length of 2900 km. It rises in Tibet (from Chemayungdung glacier), where it is called Tsangpo, and
enters the Indian territory (in Arunachal Pradesh) under the name Dihang.
• Important Tributaries: Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Manas, Teesta.
• In Bangladesh, Brahmaputra is known by the name of Jamuna while Ganga gets the name Padma. Their
combined stream is known as Padma only. Meghna is the most important distributory before it enters the Bay of
Bengal.
• The combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the biggest delta in the world, the Sundarbans, covering
an area of 58,752 sq. km. Its major part is in Bangladesh.
• On Brahmaputra is the river island, Majuli in Assam, the biggest river island in the world.
• Brahmaputra, or the Red River, is navigable for a distance of 1384 km up to Dibrugarh and serves as an excellent
inland water transport route.
Rivers of the Peninsula in India
----------------------------------------------
• Different from the Himalayan rivers because they are seasonable in their flow (while Himalayan rivers are
perennial).
• They can be divided into two groups:
A. East Flowing Rivers of India (or Delta forming rivers)
---------------
• Mahanadi River (858 km) : Rises in Raipur distt. in Chhatisgarh. Main tributaries: lb, Seonath, Hasdo, Mand,
Jonk, Tel, etc.
• Godavari River (1465 km) : Also called Vriddha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. It is the longest peninsular river.
Rises in Nasik. Main tributaries: Manjra, Penganga, Wardha, Indravati, Wainganga, Sabari, etc.
• Krishna River (1327 km) : Rises in Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar. Main tributaries: Koyna, Dudhganga,
Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, Musi, etc.
• Cauvery River (805 km) : It is the largest peninsular river (maximum amount of water). Infact, it is the only
peninsular river which flows almost throughout the year. Known as the ‘Ganga of the South’. It rises from the
Brahmagir range of Western Ghats. Main tributaries: Hemavati, Lokpawni, Shimsa. It is less seasonal than others
as its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the S.W monsoon and the lower catchment area
during winter season by the retreating N.E. monsoon. Its 90% – 95% irrigation and power production potential is
already being harnessed.
• Swarnarekha River (395 km) and Brahmani (705 km) : Rises from Ranchi Plateau.
B. West Flowing Rivers in India
-------------------------------------------
• Narmada River (1057 km) :
Has only l/10th part in Gujarat. Rises in Amarkantak Plateau and flows into Gulf of
Khambat. It forms the famous Dhuan Dhar Falls near Jabalpur. Main tributaries: Hiran, Burhner, Banjar, Shar,
Shakkar, Tawa, etc.
• Tapti River (724 km) : Rises from Betul distt in MR Also known as twin or handmaid of Narmada. Main
tributaries: Purna, Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal, etc.
• Sabarmati River (416 km) : Rises from Aravallis in Rajasthan.
• Mahi River (560 km) : Rises from Vindhyas in MR
• Luni River (450 km) : Rises from Aravallis. Also called Salt River. It is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the
head of the Rann of Kuchchh.
• Sharavati is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It forms the famous Jog or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi Falls
(289 m), which is the highest waterfall in India.
Inland Drainage
-------------------------------
• Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage. Ghaggar (494 km) is the most
important of such drainage.
• It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and gets lost in the dry sands of
Rajasthan near Hanumangarh. It is considered the old Saraswati of the Vedic times.
Note:
• The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar Lake, which is the reservoir of Sardar Sarovar Project,
Onkareshwar Project and Maheshwar Project in Gujarat-MP.
• Chilka Lake (Orissa) is the largest brackish water lake of India. Otherwise also, it is the largest lake of India.
• Wular Lake (J & K) is the largest fresh water lake of India. Dul Lake is also there in J & K.
• From Sambhar and Didwana Lake (Rajasthan), salt is produced.
• Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and Kolleru & Pulicat in AP.
• The three important Gulfs in the Indian Territory are:
• Gulf of Kuchch (west of Gujarat) : Region with highest potential of tidal energy generation
• Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat (Gujarat) : Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati drain into it.
• Gulf of Mannar (south east of Tamil Nadu) : Asia’s first marine biosphere reserve.
Important River Valley Projects of India
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•Bhukra Nangal Project On Satluj in Punjab. Highest in India. Ht 226 m. Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar Lake
•Mandi Project On Beas in H.P
•Chambal Valley Project On Chambal in M.P & Rajasthan. 3 dams are there: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap sagar Dam and Jawahar Sagar dam
•Damodar Valley Project On Damodar in Bihar. Based on Tennessee Valley Project, USA
•Hirakud On Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest dam: 4801 m
•Rihand On Son in Mirzapur. Reservoir is called Govind Vallabh Pant reservoir
•Kosi Project On Kosi in N. Bihar
Mayurkashi Project On Mayurkashi in W.B
•Kakrapara Project On Tapi in Gujarat
•Nizamsagar Project On Manjra in A.P
•Nagarjuna Sagar Project On Krishna in A.P
•Tungabhadra On Tungabhadra in A.P & Karnataka
•Shivasamudram Project On Cauvery in Karnataka
•Tata Hydel Scheme On Bhima in Maharashtra
•Sharavathi Hydel Project On Jog Falls in Karnataka
•Kundah & Periyar Project In TN
•Farakka Project On Ganga in W.B. Apart from power and irrigation it helps to remove silt for easy navigation
•Ukai Project On Tapti in Gujarat
•Mahi Project On Mahi in Gujarat
•Salal Project On Chenab in J & K
•Mata Tila Multipurpose Project On Betwa in U.P & M.P
•Thein Project On Ravi, Punjab
•Pong Dam On Beos, Punjab
The Climate of India
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the presence of the Himalayas in the north as
they block the cold the cold air masses from Central Asia. It is because of them only that the monsoons have a
watershed in India.
• The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely, the northern zone and the
southern zone. The warm temperate or the subtropical climate of the northern zone gives it cold winter seasons
and the hot summer seasons.
• The southern tropical climatic zone is warmer than the north and does not have a clear-cut winter season.
• The northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any part of the year; the southern
zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead at least twice every year.
Climate Seasons in India
------------------------------------
• In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting from the monsoons which occur mainly due to the
differential heating of land and movement of the sun’s vertical rays.
• The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic of Cancer from mid-March, due to which hot and dry weather
arrives. As temperatures rise over most of northern and Central India, a vast trough of low pressure is created.
The highest temperature experienced in South is in April while in North it is in May and June.
• This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and the north-western parts of the country experience hot, dry
winds, called loo. In this period, the country also experience storms / dust storms at various places.
1. Tornado like dust storms in Punjab and Haryana, called ‘Andhis’ in UP and ‘Kalbaisakhis’ in West Bengal.
They involve strong convectional movements causing some precipitation.
2. The ‘Norwesters’ originate over the Chhotanagpur Plateau and blow in the north-east direction which brings
about 50 cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10 cm rainfall in West Bengal and Orissa. This rainfall is very
useful for Assam tea and spring rice crops of West Bengal.
3. Similarly, ‘Cherry Blossoms’ are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee plantation and
‘Mango showers’ in elsewhere South India, which are beneficial to mango crops.
• This weather is followed by hot, wet weather from June to September. In May, the south – west monsoon sets in.
The normal dates of onset of the monsoon are May 20 in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the
Konkan, June 15 in Kolkata and June 29 in Delhi.
• The south – west monsoon enters the country in two currents, one blowing over the Bay of Bengal and the other
over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall over most of the country (except Tamil Nadu and Thar Desert
area). The S.W monsoon entering from Western Ghats causes heavy rainfall over Kerala coast, but Tamil Nadu
falls on the leeward side. In the Thar area, the winds blow parallel to the Aravallis and do not cause rain. The Bay
of Bengal current causes heavy rainfall in the north east parts of the country and a part of it turns west along the
Himalayas over the Indo-Gangetic plains causing rainfall in this region. But the Bay of Bengal current, by the time
it reaches W Rajasthan, runs out of moisture.
• The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi valley in Meghalaya and gets
entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. It strikes Cherrapunji in a perpendicular direction causing
heavies rainfall in Mawsinram (Approx. 1400 cm).
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