• From mid-Sept to mid-Dec, the monsoon retreats. As the sun’s vertical rays start shifting towards the Tropic of
Capricorn, the low pressure area starts moving south and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. This is
called north-east monsoon. The withdrawal of monsoon is a much more gradual process than its onset. It causes
rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick some moisture from Bay of Bengal. This explains the phenomenon why
Tamil Nadu remains dry when the entire country receives rain and why it gets rain when practically the entire
country is dry.
• The cold and dry weather starts in early December. In this, the average temperature in south is 24-25c, and while
in the north is 10-15c. In the latter part of December and in January, the dry spell is broken by the westerly
depressions (temperate cyclones) from Mediterranean Sea, which causes some rain in north-west India.
• Almost all the precipitation in India is caused by the monsoons and it is primarily orographic in nature. Cyclonic
storms provide only a little rain, mainly in the north.
Climatic Regions of India
------------------------------------
India can be divided into a number of climatic regions.
• Tropical Rain Forests in India : Found in the west coastal plains, the Western Ghats and parts of Assam.
Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall, though seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm
annually during May-November.
• Tropical Savanna Climate : In most of the peninsula region except the semi-arid zone in the leeward side of the
Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and early summer and high temperature
(above 18.2c); annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east.
• Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate : It prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward from
Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. It is
characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20 and 30.
• Tropical and Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region. Temperature varies from
12-35c. The maximum temperature reaches up to 49c. The annual rainfall, varying from 30.5-63.5 cm, is also
highly erratic.
• Tropical desert : This climate extends over the western parts of Banner, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of
Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30.5 cm), which is highly erratic. Rains are
mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly temperature is uniformly high (about 35c).
• Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters : This area includes south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical
and subtropical steppes and north of tropical savannah. Winters are mild to severe while summers are extremely
hot. The annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm, most of it received during the south west
monsoon season.
• Mountain Climate : Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which rise above 6,000 m or more such
as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range.
Soils in India
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups:
Alluvial Soil in India
----------------------------------
• They are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India. They are composed of sediments deposited
by rivers and the waves. Their chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world. Usually
deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed).
• Occupy the plains (from Punjab to Assam) and also occur in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti in M.P. & Gujarat,
Mahanadi in the MP and Orissa, Godawari in A.R and Cauvery in T.N.
• Can be divided into Khadar (new) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and kankary) alluvium.
Black Soil in India
----------------------
• Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop. These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava
spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago.
• They are black due to compounds of iron and aluminium (also because of titaniferous magnetite).
• Mainly found in Deccan Plateau – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
• Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing cereals, oilseeds, citrus fruits and
vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.
• They have high moisture retention level.
• Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.
Red Soil in India
-------------------
• They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and from
rock types rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. The term ‘red soil’ is due to the wide diffusion of iron
oxides through the materials of the soil.
• Covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, S.E. Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, parts of
Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand.
• Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in potash.
• Suitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes at higher
elevations).
Laterite Soil in India
------------------------
• Found in typical monsoon conditions – under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet
and dry periods. The alterations of wet and dry season leads to the leaching away of siliceous matter and lime of
the rocks and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
• Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, West
Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc.
• Poor in nitrogen and minerals.
• Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and millet cultivation if manured.
Forest and Mountain Soils
------------------------------
• Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. The formation of these soils is mainly governed
by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.
• In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions and less steeply inclined
slopes. Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in south and the peninsular region.
• Very rich in humus but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime and needs fertilizers.
• Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.
Arid and Desert Soils
---------------------------
• A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying
between the Indus and the Aravallis receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert conditions.
• This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth.
• The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is originally low but its
deficiency is made up to some extent by the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus the presence of
phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture is available.
• The changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are a living example of the utility
of the desert soils.
Saline and Alkaline Soils
----------------------------
• In the drier parts of Bihar, Up Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are the salt-impregnated or alkaline
soils. Known by different names: Reh, kallar, USAR, etc.
• Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which percolates in the sub-soils of the
plains.
• The accumulation of salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.
Peaty and Marshy Soils
--------------------------
• Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soil. They
contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 – 40% of organic matter.
• Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called Kari.
• Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar, coastal parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West
Bengal and parts of UP
Soil Erosion in India
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• Acute in hilly and dry regions
• Causes – depletion of forests, wrong use of lands such as cultivation on very steep slopes, cattle rearing. It
ultimately leads to Badland Topography.
• Remedy – Afforestation, contour cultivation etc.
Natural Vegetation in India
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests
In areas over 250cm rainfall. In Western Ghats, hilly areas in N.E. India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Trees are rosewood, shisham, ebony, ironwood, etc.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
----------------------
• In areas having rainfall between 100 – 200 cm. In peninsular region and along the foothills of Himalayas in
Shivaliks, Bhabhar and Tarai.
• The trees of these forests drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during the spring and early summer when
sufficient moisture isn’t available.
• Trees are teak, sal, bamboo, sandalwood, rosewood, etc.
Thorn Forests
••••••••••••••••••
• In areas having rainf(all between 25 and 80cm. In arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat.
• Trees are palm, acacia, etc.
Hill Forests
----------------
• In hills of S.India and the Himalayas.
• The type of trees depends upon the height of the mountain : Sal and bamboo below 1000 m; oaks, chestnuts
and other fruit trees, and chir forests between 1000 and 2000 m; pine, deodar, silver fern and spruce between
1600 and 3300 m; above 3600 m alpine forests with trees like silver firs, pines, birches, etc. Alpine forests give
way to Alpine grasslands and scrubs as we move up further.
Tidal or Mangrove Forests
------------------------------
• Also known as Littoral or Swamp Forests.
• Occur along the sea coast and in the estuaries of rivers, especially in Sunderbans and the Andamans.
• Most important tree is Sundari. It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction and building
purposes as well as for making boats.
Note :
• According to the National Forest Policy, the minimum desired area which is considered safe for a tropical country
like India is about 33%.
• Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and
Arunachal Pradesh.
• As per percentage of forest area to total area, first is Andaman and Nicobar Islands, followed by Mizoram,
Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Nagaland. They are in a very comfortable position
as more than half of their area is under forests.
• Arunachal Pradesh has the highest per capita forest area.
• In Mangrove forests, West Bengal holds the first position, followed by Gujarat and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana and Punjab, because of the extensive agriculture.
Biosphere Reserves in India
• The biosphere reserve program was launched by the UNESCO in 1971 under the aegis of its Man and Biosphere
(MAB) Program, to provide a global network of protected areas for conserving natural communities.
• In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere reserve – came into being in 1986. So far, 14 biosphere
reserves have been set up in the country.
Nilgiri (Western Ghats)
Similipal (Orissa)
Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand) Dibru-Daikhowa (Asom)
Nokrek (Meghalaya)
Dehong Dabang (Arunachal Pradesh)
Manas (Asom) Panchmarhi (MP)
Sunderbans (West Bengal) Kanchanjunga (Sikkim)
Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) Agastyamalai (Kerala)
Great Nicobar (Andaman and Nicobar Islands)
Achaanak maar-Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh)
Note :
• Out of these 14, Nilgiri, Sunderbans, Manas and Gulf of Mannar have been recognized on World Network of
Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO.
Project Tiger
--------------------
• It was launched on April 1, 1973 to ensure maintenance of viable population of the tigers in India.
• There are 29 tiger reserves in the country:
Bandipur- Karnataka
Corbett- Uttrakhand
Kanha- Madhya Pradesh
Manas- Asom
Melghat- Maharashtra
Palamau -Jharkhand
Ranthambhore- Rajasthan
Similipal -Orissa
Sunderbans- West Bengal
Periyar- Kerala
Sariska -Rajasthan
Buxa -West Bengal
Indravati -Chattisgarh
Nagariunsagar- Andhra Pradesh
Namdapha- Arunachal Pradesh
Dudhwa Uttar- Pradesh
Kalakad-Mundanthurai- Tamil Nadu
Valmiki -Bihar
Pencil- Madhya Pradesh
Tadoba-Andhari -Maharashtra
Bandhavgarh- Madhya Pradesh
Panna- Madhya Pradesh
Dampha -Mizoram
Bhadra -Karnataka
Pench- Maharashtra
Pakhui-Nameri -Arunachal Pradesh-Asom
Bori, Satpura, Pachmari- Madhya Pradesh
Nagarhole- Karnataka
Katarniaghat -Uttar Pradesh
Nameri- Asom
Kaziranga -Asom
Note :
• Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve in AP is the largest, while Pench in Maharashtra is the smallest. Bandipur
in Karnataka was the first (1973-74), while Kaziranga is the latest (2006).
Project Elephant
----------------------
• It was launched in February 1992, to assist States having wild elephants to ensure long term survival of identified
viable populations of elephants in their natural habitat.
• There are 14 Elephant Reserves in India.
Agriculture in India
--------------------------------
Cropping Seasons in India
Kharif Crops of India
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
• Sown in summers between May and July, and harvested after the rains, in September and October.
• Eg: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses, etc.
Rabi Crops of India
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
• Sown at the beginning of winter and harvested before the onset of the summer season, between Feb and April.
• Eg: Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes, etc.
Zayad Crops
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
• They are raised between April and June.
• E.g. : Melon, watermelon, cucumber, toris, leafy and other vegetables.
Cash Crops of India
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ (Commercial Crops)
.....................................
• Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion of the product is consumed by the farmers themselves (cotton,
sugarcane etc.)
Mineral Resources of India
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Coal Resources in India
------------------------------
West Bengal- (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulio, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling),
Jharkhand- (Jharia, Giridih,
Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Kamapura, Rampur, Palamau),
Orissa- (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher, Sambal),
Madbyo
Pradesh and Chhatisgarh- (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha valley, Betul), etc.
Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc.
Manganese
------------
Orissa, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindawara), Karnataka(Keonjhar,
Bonai, Kalahandi), Andhra Pradesh (Kadur, Garibadi).
Copper Minerals
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg,
Hassan).
Mica Minerals
--------------------
Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), Bihar (Goya, Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool),
Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur).
Petroleum Resources in India
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat, (Ankleshwar, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai High,
Bassein (south of Mumbai High), etc. Recently oil has been discovered in Cauvery basin, Krishna and Godavary basin,
Khambat basin, etc.
Iron Resources
---------------------
• India possesses Haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. In Madhya Pradesh (Bailadila, Jabalpur), Goa (North
Goa), Karnataka (Bababudan hills, Chikmagalur, Hospet), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Naomundi), Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa.
• India is the fifth largest exporter of iron ore in the world. Japan is the biggest buyer accounting for about 3/4th of
India’s total exports. Major ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao and
Mangalore.
Bauxite Resources
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Chief ore for producing aluminium. In Orissa (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, Sambalpur), Jharkhand
(Lohardaga, Gumla), Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Kami, Balaghat), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu.
Gold Resources in India
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittor and Anantapur
districts).
Silver, Zinc & Lead
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh (Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines).
Uranium Resources in India
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Jharkhand (Jaduguda), Rajasthan (Ajmer), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Karnataka (Gulbarga).
Thorium Resources in India
Kerala coast (From Monazite sand), rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan.
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